⚽ Year 8 Physical Education

The Cardiovascular & Respiratory Systems

The Heart

• The heart is a muscular pump divided into four chambers: left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, right ventricle
• Deoxygenated blood: right atrium → right ventricle → lungs (pulmonary circuit)
• Oxygenated blood: left atrium → left ventricle → body (systemic circuit)
• Valves (mitral, tricuspid, aortic, pulmonary) prevent backflow of blood
• Stroke volume (SV): the volume of blood pumped per heartbeat (mL/beat)
• Heart rate (HR): number of beats per minute (bpm). Resting ≈ 60–80 bpm; highly trained athletes ≈ 40–60 bpm
• Cardiac output (Q): total blood pumped per minute. Q = HR × SV
• During exercise: HR and SV both increase → cardiac output can rise from ~5 L/min at rest to ~20–25 L/min during intense exercise

The Respiratory System

• Air enters via nose/mouth → trachea → bronchi → bronchioles → alveoli (tiny air sacs in the lungs)
• Gas exchange occurs at the alveoli: oxygen diffuses into the blood; CO₂ diffuses out into the air
• Alveoli are adapted for gas exchange: very thin walls (one cell thick), large surface area, rich blood supply, moist lining
• Tidal volume: volume of air breathed in/out per breath at rest (~0.5 L)
• Breathing rate: breaths per minute. At rest ≈ 12–20; during exercise can reach 40–60
• Minute ventilation: breathing rate × tidal volume = total air moved per minute
• During exercise: breathing deepens and quickens; more O₂ delivered to working muscles; CO₂ removed faster

Long-term Effects of Regular Exercise

• Heart: cardiac hypertrophy (heart muscle grows stronger and larger); lower resting heart rate; higher stroke volume
• Lungs: increased lung capacity (vital capacity); stronger breathing muscles; more efficient O₂ uptake
• Blood: increased blood volume; more red blood cells → more O₂-carrying capacity
• Blood vessels: capillarisation (more capillaries in muscles) → faster oxygen delivery

Muscles & the Skeleton

Types of Muscle Action

• Isotonic (concentric): muscle shortens as it contracts (e.g. bicep during upward phase of a curl)
• Isotonic (eccentric): muscle lengthens under tension (e.g. bicep during downward phase of a curl — resisting gravity) — this phase causes most muscle soreness
• Isometric: muscle contracts but does not change length (e.g. holding a plank; pushing against a wall)

Major Muscles and Their Actions

• Quadriceps (front of thigh): extend the knee — running, kicking, jumping
• Hamstrings (back of thigh): flex the knee — sprinting, kicking recovery phase
• Gluteus maximus (buttock): extends the hip — sprinting, cycling, climbing
• Gastrocnemius (calf): plantar flexion (pointing the foot) — jumping, sprinting
• Biceps / triceps (upper arm): flex / extend the elbow — throwing, racket sports
• Deltoid (shoulder): abducts the arm — throwing, swimming
• Latissimus dorsi (back): pulls arm down and back — swimming, rowing, gymnastics
• Rectus abdominis (abs): flexes the spine — core stability, gymnastics
• Pectorals (chest): adduct and flex the arm — pushing, throwing, press-ups

Joints and Movement Types

• Flexion: decreasing the angle at a joint (bending)
• Extension: increasing the angle at a joint (straightening)
• Abduction: moving a limb away from the midline of the body
• Adduction: moving a limb towards the midline
• Rotation: turning around a long axis (e.g. hip rotation in a golf swing)
• Circumduction: circular movement combining flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction (e.g. arm windmill)

Nutrition & Sports Performance

Macronutrients and Sport

• Carbohydrates: the primary fuel for exercise. Stored as glycogen in muscles and liver. During high-intensity exercise, glycogen is the main energy source. Athletes should eat complex carbohydrates (pasta, rice, oats) to build glycogen stores.
• Protein: essential for muscle repair and growth. Particularly important after exercise. Sources: meat, fish, dairy, eggs, legumes, tofu. Athletes need more protein than sedentary individuals (1.2–2.0 g/kg body weight vs 0.8 g/kg).
• Fats: important for sustained, lower-intensity exercise; also used for hormone production and vitamin absorption. Unsaturated fats (nuts, oily fish, avocado) are healthiest.

Hydration

• Even mild dehydration (1–2% body weight) reduces performance significantly
• Water regulates body temperature (through sweating), transports nutrients, and removes waste
• Sports drinks containing electrolytes (sodium, potassium) and carbohydrates are useful during prolonged exercise (>60 minutes) but unnecessary for shorter activities
• Signs of dehydration: dark urine, headache, dizziness, fatigue, reduced coordination

Timing and Performance

• Pre-exercise: eat a carbohydrate-rich meal 2–3 hours before; avoid high fat or high fibre (slows digestion)
• During: small amounts of carbohydrate for prolonged exercise (gels, bananas, sports drinks)
• Post-exercise (recovery): protein and carbohydrates within 30–60 minutes; protein starts muscle repair; carbohydrates replenish glycogen

Training Methods & Principles

Types of Training

• Continuous training: steady, moderate-intensity exercise for 20+ minutes without rest (e.g. jogging, cycling). Develops aerobic endurance (VO₂ max). Good for long-distance athletes.
• Interval training: alternating periods of high-intensity work with rest or low-intensity recovery. Can develop both aerobic and anaerobic fitness. Highly versatile and time-efficient.
• HIIT (High-Intensity Interval Training): short bursts of maximal effort (e.g. 20 sec on, 40 sec off). Burns more calories in less time; elevates metabolism post-exercise.
• Circuit training: a series of exercises at different stations, working different muscle groups with minimal rest. Improves muscular endurance and can improve cardiovascular fitness.
• Weight/resistance training: using resistance (weights, body weight, bands) to build muscular strength and power. Progressive overload is key.
• Plyometric training: explosive jumping and bounding movements (box jumps, depth jumps) to develop power (speed × strength).
• Fartlek training: Swedish for "speed play"; unstructured variation of intensity in a continuous run. Develops aerobic and anaerobic fitness. Good for team sport athletes.
• Flexibility training: static stretching (held 30 sec+), dynamic stretching (controlled movements through range), and yoga/Pilates improve joint range of motion and reduce injury risk.

FITT Principles

• Frequency: how often you train
• Intensity: how hard you train (heart rate zones, weights, effort level)
• Time: how long each session lasts
• Type: what kind of exercise you do (aerobic, strength, flexibility)

Sports Psychology

Motivation

• Intrinsic motivation: driven by internal rewards — enjoyment, personal satisfaction, pride in improving. Associated with long-term participation and enjoyment.
• Extrinsic motivation: driven by external rewards — trophies, money, praise, social status. Can be effective short-term but may reduce intrinsic motivation if over-emphasised.
• Self-determination theory: the most motivated performers have both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation but are primarily intrinsically driven

Arousal and the Inverted-U Hypothesis

• Arousal: the level of activation or excitement (physical and psychological) before or during performance
• The Inverted-U Hypothesis (Yerkes-Dodson): performance improves as arousal increases up to an optimal level, then declines as arousal becomes too high
• The optimal arousal level varies by skill: fine skills (putting in golf, darts, snooker) need LOW arousal; gross power skills (shot put, rugby tackle) need HIGH arousal
• Catastrophe theory: beyond the optimal point, performance does not gradually decline but can suddenly "catastrophe" (completely fall apart)

Stress and Anxiety

• Somatic anxiety: physical symptoms — increased heart rate, sweaty palms, muscle tension, "butterflies"
• Cognitive anxiety: mental symptoms — negative thoughts, worry, poor concentration, lack of confidence
• Stress management techniques: progressive muscle relaxation, controlled breathing, imagery and visualisation, positive self-talk, mental rehearsal

Goal Setting (SMART Goals)

• Specific — clearly defined ("I will improve my 100m time" not "run faster")
• Measurable — can be tracked (e.g. "from 14.2s to 13.8s")
• Achievable — realistic and within reach
• Relevant — meaningful to the performer
• Time-bound — has a deadline ("by the end of the term")
• Process goals (how you practice) are often more effective than outcome goals (winning) for improving performance

Leadership & Officiating

Leadership Styles

• Autocratic: leader makes all decisions without consulting others. Effective in dangerous or time-critical situations, or with novice performers. Can reduce creativity and motivation.
• Democratic: leader involves the group in decision-making. More motivating and creative; better for experienced performers. Slower in an emergency.
• Laissez-faire: leader gives minimal direction; the group decides. Works with highly motivated experts. Ineffective with beginners.
• Effective leaders adapt their style (transformational leadership) to the situation and the experience of the group

Qualities of a Good Leader

• Excellent communication skills (gives clear instruction and feedback)
• Ability to motivate and inspire
• Knowledge and experience of the activity
• Emotional intelligence: empathetic, calm under pressure, manages conflict
• Organisational skills: plans sessions, manages time effectively

Officiating

• Officials (referee, umpire, judge) ensure fair play according to the rules of the sport
• Qualities of a good official: knowledge of rules, consistency, decisiveness, communication, integrity
• Technology in officiating: VAR (football), Hawkeye (tennis/cricket), DRS (cricket), TMO (rugby) — aids decision-making but can slow the game
• The role of officials in safeguarding participant safety: stopping play for injuries, managing dangerous play